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1. Urdu Letters, Names, Pronunciation, Different Combining Forms and Examples

2. Vowels, Names, Pronunciation and Examples

3. Diacritics and Names

4. Punctuation, Quotation and Other Important Marks

5. Numerals

Notes:

1. Regarding the initial, medial and final shapes of Urdu characters, it is important to keep in mind that the initial, medial and final shapes of characters do not necessarily imply the initial, medial and final position of characters in Urdu words. Some of the Urdu characters (و and ا، د، ذ، ڈ، ر، ز، ڑ، ژ ) do not combine with following characters in words. So these characters have only two shapes for their realization in script unlike others which normally have three written shapes or forms apart from their isolated/independent/full shapes. On the other hand rest of the characters, if they follow these characters in a word, take initial shape even when they occur in word medial position (e.g., اگر، دِگر، قربت، اِدھر، شربت، شرم etc.), take isolated full form at the final position (e.g., شرت، قدرت، گردن، مُردہ، سرد، کروٹ etc.) and if two such characters follow consecutively each other then the character which follows will necessarily take isolated shape even in word medial position (e.g., رونق، اور، اورت، دورہ، روز، واردات، رات etc.).

2. Urdu consonants like (بھ، پھ، تھ، ٹھ، جھ، چھ، دھ، ڈھ، ڑھ، کھ and گھ) are the extended consonants which have been added in Urdu in due course of time. They are absent in Arabic. Likewise (क़, ख़, ग़, ज़, ड़, ढ़ and फ़) are the extended consonants of Hindi.

3. Vowel nasalization is carried out through the modifier vowel nu:n Gunnah (ں), a variation of the Urdu dental nasal character nu:n (ن) only at the word final position. The character nu:n also functions as a vowel nasalizer in word medial and final position, but still retains its dot at the medial position. It does not occur at word initial position as a vowel nasalizer. The word final shape of nu:n as a nasalizer lacks the dot. Thus, in any synchronic observation of Urdu script makes (ں) distinguishable from the character nu:n (ن) only at the word final position and not at the rest of the positions. Since the character nu:n through its three different shapes symbolizes all its allophonic variations (ɳ, ɲ, and ŋ) occurring in different environments like Hindi anuswa:ra (ं) and also symbolizes vowel nasalization in word medial position in Urdu script, it becomes difficult for learners to decide only through text where exactly to sound like auuswa:ra or like anuna:sika in the absence of separate anuswa:ra and anuna:sika like markers in Urdu. Vowel nasalization at the end of words is common in both Urdu and Hindi in respect to word medial position. Nu:n Ghunnah is the Urdu equivalent of Hindi anuna:sika (ँ) sound. It is important to mention that in Hindi anuna:sika is gradually replaced by anuswa:ra, while in Urdu it is not so at least at the word final position. At the rest of the places in words, the frequency of occurence is significantly low in both Urdu and Hindi and further conditioned to occur more with long vowels or compact diphthongs since in Urdu at word final position the frequency of short vowel is very low. At the rest of the places anuwa:ra like nasalization is more common.
When we say that nu:n Gunnah is a variation of Urdu dental nasal character nu:n (ن), we accept the fact that nu:n is basic and nu:n Gunnah is just an extension of its function. Some Linguists argue that the character nu:n (ن), when occurs at word final position does not get nasalized or change into nu:n Gunnah and so nu:n Gunnah is a separate kind of character representing vowel nasalization. We find the stand difficult to accept since we are not ready to accept that Urdu words like (خاں صاحب، جہاں، آسماں، زمیں، حسیں، اذاں، آفریِں، کہاں) are basic or have no relation whatsoever with words like (خان صاحب، جہان، آسمان، زمین، حسین، اذان، آفریِن، کہان). We are comfortable with the stand that words having nu:n with dot are basic and words with or without dots are related. To us it seems that the trend of pronouncing and writing the words without dot has started later on and the dot has lost in due course of time although still optional at many cases. Thus nu:n Ghunna is an extension of the function of nu:n. Urdu nasal character nu:n (ن), as said above, has anuswa:ra like function also. Some linguists have given the proof that /n/ and /ŋ/ are separate phonemes in Urdu, through minimal pairs like [san] and [sang].

4. Urdu vowels are constructed with the help of three diacritics (ــُ and ــَ، ــِ) and three phonemes (و and ا، ی). The long vowel in Urdu is inserted if any of the diacritic is followed by any of the three phoneme and if any other letter is followed by any of the three diacritics, then short vowel is inserted. Apart from the three diacritics there is one more diacritic in Urdu called jazm that causes no insertion of vowel in Urdu if the character following the jazm is other than the three phonemes (و and ا، ی) representing long vowels.

5. Urdu diacritic jazm (ــۡۡ) makes the absence of any short vowel (ــُ and ــَ، ــِ) following the consonant on which it is placed obligatory. It is also considered to be the default marker. If there is no diacritic representing short vowel is there, it implies that jazm is there. Only long vowels (و and ا، ی) can occur, if jazm is there on a preceding consonant. In Urdu writing the use of these diacritics are generally ignored and are considered to be understood through context or prior knowledge, the use of jazm is also optional. Since it does not carry any sound of its own apart from imparting the instruction. it does not have any Romanized symbol for its pronunciation.

6. Urdu character hamzah (ء) is a glottal stop. The difference between hamzah and glottal unaspirated voiced fricative ʻayn (ع) is at times just of voicing. In Arabic its function and appearance are different. In Urdu it functions mainly as a vowel separator or as an indicator that a second vowel is following or as an indicator that a vowel has surfaced immediately before the next vowel. Scholars are not unanimous about accepting the character as a grapheme since it does not represent a phoneme and also since its occurrence is quite often like any other diacritic sometimes with a separate seat and sometimes without any seat and sometimes on other characters (usually on the long vowels like (ؤ and ئ، ۓ)). It is important to note that hamzah does not separate two consecutive short vowels since both together turn into a compact diphthong or a long vowel. It is mostly used in the situation when at least one of the two vowels is long or in these three situations (short-long, long-short or long-long) (e.g., بھاؤ، جاؤ، کہِۓ، بھائ، لۓ، بائں، دائں). If a ʻayn (ع) occurs in these situation a glottal friction sound can be heard in the speech of literate class. Hamzah also works as a syllable or word jointer in genitive case (e.g., ملکۂ ترنّم ).

7. On the question of linguists arguing that Urdu lacks short /e/ and /o/ sounds, but has their long counterparts /e:/ and /o:/. It is also an accepted fact that Hindi has only /e/ and /o/ and not their long counterparts /e:/ and /o:/. It is of no worth arguing how long or short are these vowels in Hindi and Urdu. Some Linguists argue that the long vowels of Urdu are not as long as the double of short vowels /e/ and /o/. In the similar vein, we can accept that Hindi /e/ and /o/ are not so short as the Romanized /e/ and /o/. In fact many Linguists feel comfortable if Hindi words like (ले, दे, लो, दो, को, में, से, सोना, गोल, बेटा etc) are transcribed as (le:, de:, lo:, do:, ko:, mẽ:, se:, so:na:, go:l and be:ʈa:). On the other hand, native speakers of both Hindi and Urdu feel no hesitation in writing the following words and infinitely many like these in Hindi as मेरा, तेरा, केला, बेटा, मेला, के, से etc. and the same words in Urdu as میرا، تیرا، کیلا، بیٹا، میلا، کے، سے etc. and again words like रोटी, सोना, गोल, लोटा, मोल, खोल etc. in Hindi and the same in Urdu as روٹی، سونا، گول، لوٹا، مول، کھول etc. Going by the argument the same set of words should have been spoken only with /e/ and /o/ in Hindi (i.e., mera:, tera:, kela:, beʈa:, mela:, ke, se and roʈi:, sona:, gol, loʈa:, mol, kʰol etc.) and only with long /e:/ and /o:/ (i.e., me:ra:, te:ra:, ke:la:, be:ʈa:, me:la:, ke:, se:, ro:ʈi:, so:na:, go:l, lo:ʈa:, mo:l, kʰo:l etc.) in Urdu. All these words are supposed to be articulated with short /e/ and /o/ in Hindi while, as it is sometimes argued, they are supposed to be pronounced with long /e:/ and /o:/ in Urdu. But no such distinction or classification holds. The speakers of Hindi and Urdu do not pronounce these words differently or with a difference which can demarcate both the types of speakers. Thus both the short /e/ and /o/ as well as the long /e:/ and /o:/ are represented through a single vowel in both Urdu and Hindi. Since the short and the long are not in phonological contrast to each other in both the Languages, they are neither separate phonemes nor complimentarily distributed allophones of a phoneme. They are free variations. If this is not the case somewhere we also have to accept that Hindi lacks short /e/ and /o/ and Urdu lacks long /e:/ and /o:/, which is not the case. Modern Hindi and Urdu have /e/ and /o/ with their long counterparts and they are represented by single vowel in writing. Some Hindi Phonologists accept [ae/ai] and [ao/au] as [e:] and [o:], the long counterpart of [e] and [o] on the ground that Sanskrit usually disallows diphthongs as such. How to reconcile with long /e:/ and /o:/ in Hindi and short /e/ and /o/ in Urdu is a matter left to Linguists. Native speakers of both Hindi and Urdu are using all /e/, /o/, /e:/ and /o:/ in articulation and so in writing. We follow what, where and how most of the native speakers of both the languages speak and how they pen the same.